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Extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by various cell types play important roles in a plethora of (patho) physiological processes and are increasingly recognized as biomarkers for diseases. Moreover, engineered EV and EV-inspired liposomes hold great potential as drug delivery vehicles. EVs are heterogeneous in composition and size, ranging from approximately 30-1000 nm, with the vast majority <200 nm in size. As determined by their biogenesis, the three main classes of EVs are exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. In contrast to microvesicles, which are generated by budding from the plasma membrane, exosomes are derived from the endolysosomal pathway, and fall in the size range of 30-150 nm.
Virus is a general term for a group of tiny organisms made up of non-cellular forms of nucleic acid molecules (DNA or RNA) and proteins, living a parasitic life. Viruses are by far the most abundant “life forms” in nature and are the reservoir of most of the genetic diversity in the oceans. They are also the chief culprits of many fatal diseases. The extensive study of viruses as pathogens has yielded detailed knowledge about their biological, genetic, and physical properties. Viruses exhibit exceptional stability and biocompatibility. They have attracted much attention due to the advantages of nanometer-scale size (20-200 nm), a high degree of symmetry and polyvalence, and the relative ease of producing large quantities.
A virus is a general term for a group of tiny organisms made up of non-cellular forms of nucleic acid molecules (DNA or RNA) and proteins, living a parasitic life. Viruses are by far the most abundant ‘lifeforms’ in nature and constitute the reservoir of most genetic diversity in the oceans. They are also the chief culprits of many fatal diseases. The extensive study of viruses as pathogens has yielded detailed knowledge about their biological, genetic, and physical properties. Viruses exhibit exceptional stability and biocompatibility, attracting much attention due to the advantages of their nanometer-scale size (20-200 nm), high degree of symmetry and polyvalence, and the relative ease of producing large quantities.
The presence of bacteria in the environment and the human body is very common; we come into contact with countless species every day. It is gratifying that most of them are neutral or friendly to humans. However, the presence of pathogenic strains is not negligible. The development of rapid, sensitive, and specific methods for the detection and analysis of bacteria is of great significance for food safety, environmental testing, understanding disease mechanisms, diagnosis and treatment, and the prevention of bioterrorism.
A vaccine is a biological product that is produced by weakening, inactivating, or genetically engineering pathogenic microorganisms or their metabolic products. It is used to prevent infectious diseases and other diseases such as cancer. Currently, vaccines have become an important weapon in the global fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. Vaccines produced through different technological routes have their own advantages and disadvantages. For example, inactivated vaccines have the advantages of mature production processes and strong antigenicity, but they also have disadvantages such as high production costs, slow production speed, short immune period, and the need for multiple immunizations. Viral vector vaccines do not require the cultivation of infectious viruses, have higher safety, induce cellular immunity, and have better immune effects, but they may face the challenge of pre-existing immunity. Compared with traditional viral vaccines, mRNA vaccines deliver the mRNA of key viral proteins into the body through delivery carriers, and have significant advantages over the previous two generations of viral vaccines.
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